Mounting evidence suggests that common genetic factors may predispose individuals to both mental disorders and addiction, or to having a greater risk of the second disorder, once the first appears. Stress, trauma like physical or sexual abuse and early exposure to drugs are common factors that can lead to addiction and to mental illness, particularly in those with underlying genetic vulnerabilities. Both drug and mental disorders affect some of the same areas of the brain. For example, the areas of the brain that react to drug use are the same as those circuits that react to reward processing and show abnormalities in specific mental disorders. Drug abuse and mental illness are developmental disorders. Drug abuse and mental illness often begin in adolescence or even childhood, which are periods when the brain undergoes dramatic developmental changes. Early exposure to drugs can change the brain in ways that increase the risk for mental illness, just as early symptoms of a mental disorder may increase vulnerability to drug abuse.

Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism provides leadership in a national effort to reduce problems related to alcohol. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism conducts research in a range of scientific areas, including genetics, neuroscience, epidemiology, and studies the health risks and benefits of alcohol consumption, prevention and treatment. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism coordinates and collaborates with other research institutes and Federal programs on issues related to alcohol. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism collaborates with international, national, state and local institutions, organizations, agencies and programs to translate and disseminate research findings to health care providers, researchers, policymakers and the public.

Surgical Cosmetic

Cosmetic surgery enhances one's appearance through surgical and medical techniques by maintaining normal appearance, restoring it or enhancing it beyond the average and towards the aesthetic ideal. Cosmetic surgery reshapes normal structures of the body in order to improve the appearance and self-esteem of the patient. Reconstructive surgery corrects abnormal structures of the body, caused by congenital defects, developmental abnormalities, trauma, infection, tumors or disease. It improves functions, but may also approximate a normal appearance. Minimally invasive cosmetic procedures are non-surgical treatments used to reduce the appearance of facial lines, remove unwanted hair and even out skin pigmentation.

Ophthalmology

Ophthalmology is the branch of medicine, which deals with the anatomy, physiology and diseases of the eye. The term ophthalmologist refers to a specialist in medical and surgical eye problems. Since ophthalmologists perform operations on eyes, they are both surgical and medical specialists. The eye is a fragile organ, requiring extreme care before, during, and after a surgical procedure. An expert eye surgeon must identify the need for specific procedure and be responsible for conducting the procedure safely. Anesthesia is essential for any eye surgery. Local anesthesia is most commonly used. Retrobulbar and peribulbar techniques for infiltrating the local area surrounding the eye muscle cone are to immobilize the extraocular muscles and eliminate pain sensation. Topical anesthesia using lidocaine topical gel is preferred for quick procedures. In topical anesthesia, patient cooperation is a must for a smooth procedure. General anesthesia is for children, traumatic eye injuries, major orbitotomies, and for apprehensive patients. Cardiovascular monitoring is preferable in local anesthesia and is mandatory in general anesthesia. Proper sterile precautions are used to prepare the area for surgery, including use of antiseptics like povidone-iodine. Sterile drapes, gowns and gloves are necessary. A plastic sheet with a receptacle helps collect the fluids during phacoemulsification. An eye speculum is used to keep the eyes wide open. Although the terms laser eye surgery and refractive surgery are used as if they were interchangeable, this is not the case. Lasers may be used to treat nonrefractive conditions, while radial keratotomy is an example of refractive surgery without the use of a laser. A cataract is an opacification or cloudiness of the eye's crystalline lens due to aging, disease, or trauma that typically prevents light from forming a clear image on the retina. If visual loss is significant, surgical removal of the lens with lost optical power is performed and it is usually replaced with a plastic intraocular lens. Due to the high prevalence of cataracts, cataract extraction is the most common eye surgery. Rest after surgery is necessary. LASIK is Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis. LASIK is a type of refractive surgery, performed by ophthalmologists using a laser. The operation is with the patient awake and mobile; however, the patient is sometimes given a mild sedative (such as Valium) and anesthetic eye drops. LASIK is in three steps. The first step is to create a flap of corneal tissue. The second step is remodeling of the cornea underneath the flap with the laser. Finally, the flap is repositioned.